Sadly, the vast majority of discussions on the origins of science include only the Greeks, Romans and other whites. 636 Gender and language in sub-Saharan Africa : tradition, struggle and change / Ed. Cosatu Knows It, Will It Embark on Anti-VAT Campaign of 1991? Theres an almost century-long gap between, translation of West Africas manuscripts to, that was written primarily using Al-Sadis Tarikh al-sudan. did sub saharan africa have a written language. There has been relatively slow progress on the extension of grid infrastructure in the region, partly due to the high cost of transmission, maintenance and operation costs in . Ajami is the use of Arabic alphabet for writing down some African languages, especially those of Hausa and Swahili. Vincent Meadows Cool, so we have some obscure quotes from Greek myths, myth is the worst thing to ever base your knowledge of history on. In the new study, Skoglund and team, including colleagues from South Africa, Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya, coaxed DNA from the remains of 15 ancient sub-Saharan Africans. The oldest written scripts ever discovered are what called Proto Saharan, found by the Kharga . Never trust anything Dr. Clyde Winters says or writes. A literary tradition is. Many attempts to classify them have been inadequate because of the great complexity of the languages and because of a confusion relating language, "race," and economy; for example, there was once a spurious view of pastoralism as related to . (LogOut/ The scriptlater evolved into proto-Geez script between the 5th century BC and the first century CE. Dr. Clyde Winters, author of "The Ancient . We use cookies on our website to give you the most relevant experience by remembering your preferences and repeat visits. That includes a large amount of countries and they would each have their own official languages. Regionally and in some localities, other scripts may be of significant importance. The oldestsymbolsappear on theCalabar ceramics (5th-15th century),others appear on theIkom monoliths like the 15th centuryAnkwanshi stone sculpture (currently at the New Orleans Museum of Art). The Coptic language is still used today as the liturgical language in the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and the Coptic Catholic Church of Alexandria. Keep the truth coming. As if Subsaharan Africa did not have enough to work through to achieve stability, it must also cope with high . Its written by the Soninke-Gonja scholar, Sidi Umar Suma in 1751. The ancient Britons did not invent chariots. of the Maghreb, Sahara, and Sahel regions (Savage 2008). There have been occasional remarkable Sub-Saharan Africans figures such as Marcus Garvey, however, the popular public figures tend to be showmen, athletes, and musicians.Reasons for the lack of a historical high culture created by Sub-Saharan Africans is a cause of heated debate, some argue it is a hard-wired biological issue, others have attempted to find scape-goats such as colonialism . Office/computer technology, fonts and standards, sfn error: no target: CITEREFGerhard_Kubik2006 (, harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFLaitin1977 (. Its history refutes the oft-prevailing claims that Africa lacks written traditions. Often, the responsibility of recording historical information was consigned to professional historians, trusted individuals whose superior wisdom and training equipped them to remember and interpret vast stores of information for the benefit of the community. That means far fewer people, comparatively, have lived long enough to develop the health . Documented reference begins with J. K. Macgregor in 1909, the primary medium for writing Nsibidiseems to have been textiles. The oldest Asian writing, proto-cuneiform, dates to around 3000 B.C. For years the building of Great Zimbabwe was attributed t an unknown and most definitely not indigenous African people. Functional cookies help to perform certain functionalities like sharing the content of the website on social media platforms, collect feedbacks, and other third-party features. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Performance". Additionally, the Proto-Sinaitic Wadi el-Hol inscriptions indicate the presence of an extremely early form of the script in central Egypt (near the modern city of Qena) in the early 2nd millennium BC. However, Africa's oldest known writing system is over 6,000 years old. By the end of the fifteenth century, Europeans had begun arriving in the region, wanting to acquire resources such as gold, copper, and rubber. During this time, several European countries took control of territories in Africa that they claimed for themselves. Most languages natively spoken in Africa belong to one of the two large language families that dominate the continent: Afroasiatic, or Niger-Congo.Another hundred belong to smaller families such as Ubangian, Nilotic, Saharan, and the various families previously grouped under the umbrella term Khoisan.In addition, the languages of Africa include several unclassified languages and sign languages. The World Health Organization (WHO) is recommending widespread use of the RTS,S/AS01 (RTS,S) malaria vaccine among children in sub-Saharan Africa and in other regions with moderate to high P. falciparum malaria transmission. The script was written in the form of two scripts; hieroglyphic and cursive the former was used in royals and temples texts offering tables and on votive objects, while the longer royal documents were inscribed in the cursive script which made up over 90% of the Meroitic documents discovered to date. The other group that shoulders much of the blame are historians who chose to exclude these manuscripts and instead preferred non-African sources. Why? Apart from its obvious use for the Arabic language, it has been adapted for a number of other languages over the centuries. Hausa is one of the largest ethnic groups found in West Africa. Although it is hard to be certain that a particular language spoken in Africa was the oldest, many people agree on the name of Ancient Egyptian. In the 1960s and 1970s, UNESCO facilitated several "expert meetings" on the subject, including a seminal meeting in Bamako in 1966, and one in Niamey in 1978. It was later widely used in the Kingdom with Ezanas epigraphsandtheHawulti obelisk being one of the oldest inscriptions of the Geez script before the 4thcentury. mau (1793-1865) she chronicled history and expanded the use of, jami writing by translating earlier works into Hausa. 637 Intonation in African tone languages / Ed . But if you look at the Vatican's wealth on a per capita basi We hear you. Excuse me for "sounding" a bit harsh or critical of your response, but you saying "I can't find anything to back up the claim that Vai is an ancient script" comes off a bit disingenuous in light of one of the sources from which you quote. The recommendation is based on results from an ongoing pilot programme in Ghana, Kenya and Malawi that has reached more than 900 000 children since 2019. Weve published your comment in full as an article. The other notable document is the Epitaph of Damianos, a deceased eparch of Nobadia also found at Qasr Ibrim. In ISO 15924, the code Tfng is assigned to Neo-Tifinagh. The Sinai has belonged to Egypt since time immemorial, so weather or not it is part of Africa is questionable, let's say it is. Is the creator of the script, Momolu Duwalu Bukele, a liar? Unfortunately, few of us are aware of these accomplishments, as the history of Africa, beyond ancient Egypt, is seldom publicized. Unseth, Peter. Great articleloved it.. Today, the Latin script is commonly encountered across Africa, especially in the Western, Central and Southern Africa regions. A social orthography of identity: the Nko literacy movement in West Africa. The whole continent of the so-called Africa was documented and known as an Ethiopia. A huge cache of stone inscriptions from one of Africa's oldest written languages have been unearthed in a vast "city of the dead" in Sudan. [38] Today's Tifinagh is thought by some scholars to be descended from Punic, but this is still under debate. And if you read the article it states the script was found throughout Egypt. Herodotus, Plato, Homer, Aristotle, and so on The Egyptian which the Greek renamed the land during Alexander the ungreat! The cookie is set by the GDPR Cookie Consent plugin and is used to store whether or not user has consented to the use of cookies. ' as for the (whole?) These cookies ensure basic functionalities and security features of the website, anonymously. This article covers African literary works from Chad to Tanzania and from Senegal to Ethiopia. Question 1: How this came about and who did introduce the Roman script and Indian numerals to Africa? 2008. The cookies is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Necessary". But I digress, the middle east is in Asia and was never part of Africa. Works about statecraft and politics include those written by, ukkam (The light for Governors) in 1806 a widely read manuscript then, and . Unseth, Peter. It draws heavily from Gonjas earlier written works. The cookie is used to store the user consent for the cookies in the category "Analytics". She also wrote many poems and started several schools for women in the Sokoto empire. For the first time the history of parts of the so called Dark Continent was written down. The other factor are the European armies that destroyed the libraries that held these manuscripts starting with the Portuguese in Kilwa and the Swahili coast, the French in Segu and the British in Asante. Um Yes it is, at least it was before European invasion. 2016. 1 / 63. Neo-Tifinagh is encoded in the Unicode range U+2D30 to U+2D7F, starting from version 4.1.0. liberty puzzles monet. . There was at least one IBM Selectric typewriter "typeball" developed for some African languages (including Fula). iyasat written in 1820 (Illumination on Legislative politics). Swahili poets includePate resident Bwana Mwengo Athmani who in 1728 wrote Utendi wa Tambuka (The Story of Tambuka). It would HARDLY be the first Victorian fakery. xum, and its script was commonly used in the, xumite Kingdom by the 4th century about the time of king, was later widely used in the Kingdom with, awulti obelisk being one of the oldest inscriptions of the Geez script. The Romans did not invent chariots. Its written by the Soninke-Gonja scholar, Sidi Umar Suma in 1751. Geez or Ethiopic has been computerized and assigned Unicode 3.0 codepoints between U+1200 and U+137F (decimal 46084991), containing the basic syllable signs for Geez, Amharic, and Tigrinya, punctuation and numerals. The Tifinagh alphabet is still actively used to varying degrees in trade and modernized forms for writing of Berber languages (Tamazight, Tamashek, etc.) You are here: Home. The third oldest were the Kanem-Bornu chronicles written by Ahmad furtuwami (Ibn Furtu) a Kanuri scholar about the history of the empire and Mai Alamwas wars of expansion; Ghazawat Barnu (The Book of the Bornu Wars) was written in 1576 and Ghazawat Kanei (The Book of the Kanem Wars) was written in 1578. The third oldest were the Kanem-Bornu chronicles written by Ahmad furtuwami (Ibn Furtu) a Kanuri scholar about the history of the empire and Mai Alamwas wars of expansion; Ghazawat Barnu (The Book of the Bornu Wars) was written in 1576 and Ghazawat Kanei (The Book of the Kanem Wars) was written in 1578. I have chosen to only list the chronicles above to highlight the part of West-Africas literary culture that deals with Africans writing their own history. Vlad Donciu I just wrote about two different empirical forces that extended beyond modern continental Africa? However, most have substantial, longstanding oral traditions. The fifth literary culturewasthe independently invented Nsibidi, an ancient system of writingfoundamong anumber of south eastNigerian ethnic groups and secret societies. Assyrians, Babylonians, Elamites, Hebrews were not Sub Saharan Africans. Vincent Meadows Just because It is part of Egypt, it doesn't mean it's Africa. Many of the selections presented here are from the Niger-Congo family, which includes languages spoken by the majority of sub-Saharan Africans. The chronicle mostly covers the Songhai empire and the succeeding Arma Kingdom giving brief accounts on the Mali empire. Europeans to justify their subjugation of Africa and her people. Part of the blame rests on colonial racial anthropologists who created that image. Map 2 (found below) shows languages that were introduced to Africa when Africa was colonized by European countries. It is the second most widely spoken Bantu language, after Shona, and is written using the Latin alphabet. Is this the most known writing in Sub-Saharan Africa? One of the best preserved of these is the 1.6m tall stela, BC detailing temple donations and military campaigns during his reign and a 2, AD funerary stela of the Lady Ataqelula a wealthy woman, one of many. For centuries, sub-Saharan Africa was home to prosperous empires that made groundbreaking advances in architecture, mathematics, and metalworking. The most common African language in this group is Kanuri, with between four and five million speakers. 1981. Diseases in animal husbandry did not appear with the Colonial invasion of Africa, it existed long before and was well manged by African herdsman. These in turn relate to fundamental decisions regarding orthographies of African languages. As mentioned above, the Bohairic dialect of Coptic is used currently in the Coptic Orthodox Church. Meroitic writing is the oldest-known written language of sub-Saharan Africa. The indigenous scripts of West Africa and Surinam: their inspiration and design. 2008. Although you can't put all the ancient scripts in such a brief article you did miss a few key major Afrosemetic and Afrohametic languages like paleo-Hebrew for example, a language that changed the world as we know it and although the script has changed the language is still in use today giving us key insight into the major faith systems of the modern world, I look forward to the next post Keep it up! His spokesman, Walid El Hajjam, didn't reply to written questions about the violence against sub-Saharan African migrants and how authorities intend to stop it.Burkina Faso and Mali invited their nationals to register for repatriation flights while hundreds of Ivorian expatriates sought refuge at their country's embassy.Saied has added . arikh al-fattashi (titled MS. C) should be considered separate from the older chronicle as it was written by the, ulani scholar Nuh Al-tahir who added an 1850s manuscript of the history of the, the Taqyid akhbar on the history of the Sokoto Empire written by the Hausa-Fulani scholar Muhammad Zangi in 1868, the , ve chosen to only list the chronicles above to highlight the part of West-Africas literary culture that deals with, ve also indicated each authors ethnicity since, that wont be discussed in detail include astronomy. Geezhadbecome theliturgicaland administrative language ofAxum, and its script was commonly used in theAxumite Kingdom by the 4th century about the time of king Ezanas conversion to Christianity. Similarly, there were diverse efforts (successful, but not standardized) to enable use of Ethiopic-Eritrean /Ge'ez on computers. (2.1) Latin/Roman alphabet; and Theologian, Fish farmer, Solar installer and Tour guide. This is the map by Herodotus, one of the earliest Greeks to try and map the world. 1969. TheSoninke were by then a large trading diasporathought inWest-Africa, originating fromthe ancientGhana. Competing Views on Multilingualism. Blessed Heart of love. It seems likely that the expansion of the Bantu . Would you like to know about Ethiopia? wrote various books, poems, chronicles, philosophical and scientific works and other literature in the, arima gospels composed in the 5th century AD, which hold the title for the oldest illuminated, composed in the 14th century an account on the origins and history of the, the royal biographical genre starting with Emperor, eyon <13141344> often recounting diplomatic exchanges and military conflicts); Fetha Nagast a legal code used in, since 1450; philosophical works like hatata <1667> by philosopher, acob and whose reason-based philosophy (combined with gender equality and abolitionism, chants zema and numerous authors prayer books such as Baselyos, Arganon Maryam (the organ of Mary) in the. The Sinai, particularly at the time of the Proto-Sinaitic script, was not populated by Africans. together with your life, than would it be honest to convey you are not Nsibidi:http://www.philip-effiong.com/Nsibidi.pdf. The well-known explorers such as Livingstone and Stanley did not discover the lakes, mountains, rivers and grasslands of Southern Africa, they just documented it on paper. D) the written form of a language. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Having obtained a doctorate in one of the scientific fields listed in Appendix 2 Have defended their thesis after February 2018. This cookie is set by GDPR Cookie Consent plugin. Many of the selections presented here are from the Niger-Congo family, which includes languages spoken by the majority of sub-Saharan Africans. Masfarma Umar Uthman before 1519. Since the colonial period, there have been efforts to propose and promulgate standardized or at least harmonized approaches to using the Latin script for African languages. It was the civil and administrative language of the Kingdom of Kush, then centred at Meroe after the 4th century BC. sciences, mathematics, medicine, statecraft, poetry, and religion. With anywhere between 1000 and 2000 languages, Africa is home to approximately one-third of the world's languages. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Bwire Vincent the stories of the bible are factual to you ? The Greek alphabet was adapted in Egypt to the Coptic alphabet (with the addition of 7 letters derived from ancient Demotic) in order to write the language (which is today only a liturgical language of the Coptic Church). The ninth oldest chronicle was Dhikr al-wafayat wa-ma hadath min alumur al-izam (Brief History of Timbuktu from 1747-1815) written by Mulay Sulayman before 1820. The colonization of Africa replaced a development of society and technology in African style with new societal organisation and new technology brought from Europe. There is not much information on the adaptation of typewriters to African language needs (apart from Arabic, and the African languages that do not use any modified Latin letters). Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara.These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa.Geopolitically, in addition to the African countries and territories that are situated fully in that specified region, the term may also include polities that only have part of their territory located in . Vlad Donciu No, many Greek writers considered present day middle east "Ethiopia" a term meaning people with burnt faced skinned. Arabic script is mainly used in North Africa and Ge'ez script is widely used in the Horn of Africa. This language falls under the Semitic branch in the Afroasiatic language family. In recent years, Osmanya, Tifinagh, Bamum, Adlam, Bassa Vah, Medefaidrin, and N'Ko have been added to Unicode, as have individual characters to other ranges of languages used, such as Latin and Arabic. AFAIK, there never was an sub-Saharan African equivalent of the Roman empire. (a clay tablet found in Iklaina, Greece) and is largely derived from an older African script. According to UIS data, almost 60% of youth between the ages of about 15 and 17 are not in school. In West Africa, kingdoms such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai engaged in trans- Saharan trade with North Africa as early as A.D. 300, flourishing particularly in the Middle Ages. While African communities were on the rise in terms of organising themselves in states producing vast quantities of cattle and smaller quantities of grain, the sudden appearance of Europeans purchasing and conquering land, brought about an obstacle in the development of African written languages, social differentiation, organizing, technology and productive skills. Babylon was never Africa. Of all regions, sub-Saharan Africa has the highest rates of education exclusion. The Niger-Congo language family is one of the largest language families in the world and the largest one in Africa in terms of its geographical spread across most of sub-Saharan Africa, number of speakers, and the number of languages (1514). Theseinscriptions of what some archaeologists and linguists have termed proto-Saharan, near the Kharga Oasis west of what was considered Nubia, may date back to as early as 5000 B.C. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); Chibuene, Vilankulo, Inhambane, Mozambique. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. Herodotus clearly knew that Ethiopia was to the south of Nubia, and south of Egypt generally speaking across from the southwestern tip of Arabia. This page was last edited on 3 February 2023, at 00:25. real people on the ground. Further Notes on Nsibidi Signs with Their Meanings from the Ikom District, Southern Nigeria. Another Kanem chronicle was written in 1658 by a scholar named Muhammad Salih Ishaq. The second oldest written language is Old Nubian, also belonging to the nilo-saharan language family it was the civil and administrative language of the Christian Nubian Kingdoms of Nobadia, Makuria and Alodia between the 8th and 15th centuries. The other topicsof African literaturethat wont be discussed in detail include astronomyand othersciences, mathematics, medicine, statecraft, poetry, and religion. This has confused some scholars as the areas we now call the middle east where part of an extension of Africa. You are here: disadvantages of refresher training; largest metropolitan areas in latin america; did sub saharan africa have a written language . Most of thedocumentswritten in the script weresecular (while the majority of those inCoptic andGreekwere religious) including several legal documents, financial accounts, private letters, theological commentary andepitaphs.The most notable secular manuscripts from this era are the land sales in the Kingdom of Makuria especially around Qasr Ibrim one of its provincial cities. The Sub-Saharan African People: West Africa. And of course in the Western Africa, the arabic script was adopted to write in the sahel the local languages (when the arabic language was not itself used). It draws heavily from Gonjas earlier written works. TheAxumites andAbyssinianswrote various books, poems, chronicles, philosophical and scientific works and other literature in theGeez script, most notably; the Garima gospels composed in the 5th century AD, which hold the title for the oldest illuminatedChristian manuscripts in the world; KebraNegast(glory of the kings) composed in the 14th century an account on the origins and history of theSolomonicdynasty (the latterintroduced the royal biographical genre starting with EmperorAmdaSeyon <13141344> often recounting diplomatic exchanges and military conflicts); Fetha Nagast a legal code used in Ethiopia since 1450; philosophical works like hatata <1667> by philosopher ZeraYacob and whose reason-based philosophy (combined with gender equality and abolitionism contraryto his laterEuropeanpeers) has beenreferredto asAfricas precursor to the age of enlightenment. So far, the, amum palace archives these pictographic, were common forms of communication in parts of coast west and west-central Africa like the, yet despite evidence to the contrary, the myth of non-literate African societies persists. 1990. Colonialism broadly refers to the control of a territory by another group and colonial policies varied across Africa. Much of the modern depiction of Africa preceding written history is through archaeology and antiquities. The second oldestistheWangara chronicle ofKano titled Asl al-Wangariyin about the history of the Wangara(Soninke)trading diaspora in theHausalands. The Oromo Orthography of Shaykh Bakri Sapalo. Shawn Mc The bible is the worst pseudo historical resource you can ever use. IsiZulu, or Zulu, is one of South Africa's official language, and has over 10 million speakers. did sub saharan africa have a written language. Perhaps the most famous African writing system is ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. On the Tigris and Euphrates river delta in old Persia we found the first signs of a human written language called cuneiform. (clay texts found at Jemdet Nasr). I've driven deep into the Sahara in Morocco, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Libya, Sudan (through all of Darfur). The Middle East was considered to be part of Asia, never Africa. However, Sudan (which apparently had 2 different written languages) and the Horn of Africa are somewhat marginally sub-Saharan regions. Savage, Andrew. There are no official standard forms or orthographies, though local usage follows traditional practice for the area or language. The evidence dates to prehistoric times and can be found in multiple regions of the continent. How do you summon no AI mobs in Minecraft? Around the 10th century, OldNubian had largely replaced bothCoptic andGreek which had previously been theliturgicallanguages of theNubianChristian Kingdoms (it also marks the time when ChristianNubia was at its height). The Geez script is an abugida that was created in Horn of Africa in the 8th-9th century BC for writing the Geez language. 1. Also, a writing system doesn't have to be ancient to be legitimate. Fill in your details below or click an icon to log in: You are commenting using your WordPress.com account. Part of the blame rests on colonial racial anthropologists who created that image. Others studied astronomy like Nasir Al-Ghalawi whose famous manuscript written in 1733 Kashf al-Ghummah fi Nafa al-Ummah (The Important Stars Among the Multitude of the Heavens)is often prominently displayed among the manuscripts of Timbuktu. This doesn't tell you much about the various areas of The Arab peninsula and modern day Sinai region. Despite a vigorous push, the developing countries represented at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conferencewhich included three sub-Saharan Africa countries (Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa)failed to have their development financing needs explicitly referenced in the Articles of Agreement (though they did manage to have "the development of . "However, evidence of its antiquity comes from inscriptions from Goundaka, Mali, that date to 3000 B.C." They developed the breeding skills and of rotating the grazing areas and staying away from conditions that favored diseases. 1) East Africa and West Africa share the huge responsibility of inter-continental enslavement of Africans. Other notable works includeSt.Yareds 6th century books on theEthiopian chants zema and numerous authors prayer books such as BaselyossArganon Maryam (the organ of Mary) in the17th centuryplus multiple other works not mentioned here. The fourth and most extensive region of African literary culture was West-Africa, encompassing all modern countries west of Sudan and Cameroon to the Atlantic ocean including the coastal countries.The oldestArabic inscriptionsherecome from thecitiesofGao andTadmekka between the 11th and 12th centuries like the epitaph of Yama b. Kima (reigned1110-1120)aSoninke king of the Zaghe dynasty ofGao. The other notable document is the Epitaph of Damianos, a deceased eparch of Nobadia also found at Qasr Ibrim. gathering appoximately 140 languages with some eleven millions speakers scattered in Central and Eastern Africa. [5][6], Adinkra is a set of symbols developed by the Akan, used to represent concepts and aphorisms. Such discussions continue, especially on more local scales regarding cross-border languages. It is characterized by unique click . Two diametrically opposite views have emerged with respect to the presence of numerous languages across the various countries of sub-Saharan Africa. Relations between southern Arabia and the northern Horn of Africa during the last millennium BC, Aksum: An African Civilisation of Late Antiquity. The documents contain narrations, starting with religious phrases followed by reports of their military campaigns. The other theory comes from a white man who claims he was told that a Black man had a dream about a white man sent by other white men who gave him a book, and thus he was given a written language which he forgot when he woke up and had some friends help him make some new symbols for the book given in the dream. The Meroitic Language and Writing System, Recent Research on Meroitic, the Ancient Language of Sudan, Ancient Nubia (present-day Sudan): In the footsteps of the Napata and Meroe kingdoms, Multilingualism in Christian Nubia: A case study of the monastery of Ghazali, Medieval Nubia: A Social and Economic History, THE OLD NUBIAN EPARCHAL ARCHIVE FROM QASR IBRIM RECONSIDERED*, Dotawo: A Journal of Nubian Studies: Vol. The Akan Language and its dialects uses the Adinkra Nkyea writing system. 11 Ancient African Writing Systems That Demolish the Myth That Black People Were Illiterate, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus#mediaviewer/File:Herodotus_world_map-en.svg, http://www.philip-effiong.com/Nsibidi.pdf, 11 Ancient African Writing Systems You Should Know, You Have To See These Ancient African Writing Systems That Have Survived Hundred of Years of European Occupation and Destruction.

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